Update Asian Domestic

Update Asian Domestic

Influenza A Virus

Variants and subtypes

Variants are identified and named according to the isolate that they are like and thus are presumed to share lineage (example Fujian flu virus like); according to their typical host (example Human flu virus); according to their subtype (example H3N2); and according to their deadliness (example LP, Low Pathogenic). So a flu from a virus similar to the isolate A/Fujian/411/2002(H3N2) is called Fujian flu, human flu, and H3N2 flu.

Variants are sometimes named according to the species (host) the strain is endemic in or adapted to. The main variants named using this convention are:

Bird flu

Human flu

Swine flu

Horse flu

Dog flu

Cat flu

Variants have also sometimes been named according to their deadliness in poultry, especially chickens:

Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI)

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI), also called: deadly flu or death flu

Most known strains are extinct strains. For example, the annual flu subtype H3N2 no longer contains the strain that caused the Hong Kong Flu.

Annual flu

Main article: Flu season

The annual flu (also called "seasonal flu" or "human flu") in the U.S. "results in approximately 36,000 deaths and more than 200,000 hospitalizations each year. In addition to this human toll, influenza is annually responsible for a total cost of over $10 billion in the U.S." .

The annually updated trivalent influenza vaccine consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B influenza viruses.

The dominant strain in January 2006 was H3N2. Measured resistance to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine in H3N2 has increased from 1% in 1994 to 12% in 2003 to 91% in 2005.

"[C]ontemporary human H3N2 influenza viruses are now endemic in pigs in southern China and can reassort with avian H5N1 viruses in this intermediate host."

Structure and genetics

See also: H5N1 genetic structure

"The physical structure of all influenza A viruses is similar. The virions or virus particles are enveloped and can be either spherical or filamentous in form. In clinical isolates that have undergone limited passages in eggs or tissue culture, there are more filamentous than spherical particles, whereas passaged laboratory strains consist mainly of spherical virions."

The Influenza A virus genome is contained on eight single (non-paired) RNA strands that code for eleven proteins (HA, NA, NP, M1, M2, NS1, NEP, PA, PB1, PB1-F2, PB2). The total genome size is 13,588 bases. The segmented nature of the genome allows for the exchange of entire genes between different viral strains during cellular cohabitation. The eight RNA segments are:

HA encodes hemagglutinin (about 500 molecules of hemagglutinin are needed to make one virion) "The extent of infection into host organism is determined by HA. Influenza viruses bud from the apical surface of polarized epithelial cells (e.g. bronchial epithelial cells) into lumen of lungs and are therefore usually pneumotropic. The reason is that HA is cleaved by tryptase clara which is restricted to lungs. However HAs of H5 and H7 pantropic avian viruses subtypes can be cleaved by furin and subtilisin-type enzymes, allowing the virus to grow in other organs than lungs."

NA encodes neuraminidase (about 100 molecules of neuraminidase are needed to make one virion).

NP encodes nucleoprotein.

M encodes two matrix proteins (the M1 and the M2) by using different reading frames from the same RNA segment (about 3000 matrix protein molecules are needed to make one virion).

NS encodes two distinct non-structural proteins (NS1 and NEP) by using different reading frames from the same RNA segment.

PA encodes an RNA polymerase.

PB1 encodes an RNA polymerase and PB1-F2 protein (induces apoptosis) by using different reading frames from the same RNA segment.

PB2 encodes an RNA polymerase.

The genome segments have common terminal sequences, and the ends of the RNA strands are partially complementary, allowing them to bond to each other by hydrogen bonds. After transcription from negative-sense to positive-sense RNA the +RNA strands get the cellular 5' cap added by cap snatching, which involves the viral protein NS1 binding to the cellular pre-mRNAs. The cap is then cleaved from the cellular pre-mRNA using a second viral protein, PB2. The short oligo cap is then added to the influenza +RNA strands, allowing its processing as messenger RNA by ribosomes. The +RNA strands also serve for synthesis of -RNA strands for new virions.

The RNA synthesis and its assembly with the nucleoprotein takes place in the cell nucleus, the synthesis of proteins takes place in the cytoplasm. The assembled virion cores leave the nucleus and migrate towards the cell membrane, with patches of viral transmembrane proteins (hemagglutinin, neuraminidase and M2 proteins) and an underlying layer of the M1 protein, and bud through these patches, releasing finished enveloped viruses into the extracellular fluid.

In nonhumans

See H5N1 for the current epizootic (an epidemic in nonhumans) and panzootic (a disease affecting animals of many species especially over a wide area) of H5N1 influenza

Avian influenza

Main article: Avian influenza

Wild fowl act as natural asymptomatic carriers of Influenza A viruses. Prior to the current H5N1 epizootic, strains of Influenza A virus had been demonstrated to be transmitted from wild fowl to only birds, pigs, horses, seals, whales and humans; and only between humans and pigs and between humans and domestic fowl; and not other pathways such as domestic fowl to horse.

Wild aquatic birds are the natural hosts for a large variety of influenza A viruses. Occasionally viruses are transmitted from these birds to other species and may then cause devastating outbreaks in domestic poultry or give rise to human influenza pandemics.

H5N1 has been shown to be transmitted to tigers, leopards, and domestic cats that were fed uncooked domestic fowl (chickens) with the virus. H3N8 viruses from horses have crossed over and caused outbreaks in dogs. Laboratory mice have been infected successfully with a variety of avian flu genotypes.

Influenza A viruses spread in the air and in manure and survives longer in cold weather. It can also be transmitted by contaminated feed, water, equipment and clothing; however, there is no evidence that the virus can survive in well-cooked meat. Symptoms in animals vary, but virulent strains can cause death within a few days.

"Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus is on every top ten list available for potential agricultural bioweapon agents".

Avian influenza viruses that the OIE and others test for in order to control poultry disease include: H5N1, H7N2, H1N7, H7N3, H13N6, H5N9, H11N6, H3N8, H9N2, H5N2, H4N8, H10N7, H2N2, H8N4, H14N5, H6N5, H12N5 and others.

Known outbreaks of highly pathogenic flu in poultry 1959-2003

Year

Area

Affected

Subtype

1959

Scotland

chicken

H5N1

1963

England

turkey

H7N3

1966

Ontario (Canada)

turkey

H5N9

1976

Victoria (Australia)

chicken

H7N7

1979

Germany

chicken

H7N7

1979

England

turkey

H7N7

1983

Pennsylvania (USA)*

chicken, turkey

H5N2

1983

Ireland

turkey

H5N8

1985

Victoria (Australia)

chicken

H7N7

1991

England

turkey

H5N1

1992

Victoria (Australia)

chicken

H7N3

1994

Queensland (Australia)

chicken

H7N3

1994

Mexico*

chicken

H5N2

1994

Pakistan*

chicken

H7N3

1997

New South Wales (Australia)

chicken

H7N4

1997

Hong Kong (China)*

chicken

H5N1

1997

Italy

chicken

H5N2

1999

Italy*

turkey

H7N1

2002

Hong Kong (China)

chicken

H5N1

2002

Chile

chicken

H7N3

2003

Netherlands*

chicken

H7N7

*Outbreaks with significant spread to numerous farms, resulting in great economic losses. Most other outbreaks involved little or no spread from the initially infected farms.

1979: "More than 400 harbor seals, most of them immature, died along the New England coast between December 1979 and October 1980 of acute pneumonia associated with influenza virus, A/Seal/Mass/1/180 (H7N7)."

1995: "[V]accinated birds can develop asymptomatic infections that allow virus to spread, mutate, and recombine (ProMED-mail, 2004j). Intensive surveillance is required to detect these ilent epidemics in time to curtail them. In Mexico, for example, mass vaccination of chickens against epidemic H5N2 influenza in 1995 has had to continue in order to control a persistent and evolving virus (Lee et al., 2004)."

1997: "Influenza A viruses normally seen in one species sometimes can cross over and cause illness in another species. For example, until 1997, only H1N1 viruses circulated widely in the U.S. pig population. However, in 1997, H3N2 viruses from humans were introduced into the pig population and caused widespread disease among pigs. Most recently, H3N8 viruses from horses have crossed over and caused outbreaks in dogs."

2000: "In California, poultry producers kept their knowledge of a recent H6N2 avian influenza outbreak to themselves due to their fear of public rejection of poultry products; meanwhile, the disease spread across the western United States and has since become endemic."

2003: In Netherlands H7N7 influenza virus infection broke out in poultry on several farms.

2004: In North America, the presence of avian influenza strain H7N3 was confirmed at several poultry farms in British Columbia in February 2004. As of April 2004, 18 farms had been quarantined to halt the spread of the virus.

2005: Tens of millions of birds died of H5N1 influenza and hundreds of millions of birds were culled to protect humans from H5N1. H5N1 is endemic in birds in southeast Asia and represents a long term pandemic threat.

2006: H5N1 spreads across the globe killing hundreds of millions of birds and over 100 people causing a significant H5N1 impact from both actual deaths and predicted possible deaths.

Swine flu

Main article: Swine Flu

Swine flu (or "pig influenza") refers to a subset of Orthomyxoviridae that create influenza in pigs and are endemic in pigs. The species of Orthomyxoviridae that can cause flu in pigs are Influenza A virus and Influenza C virus but not all genotypes of these two species infect pigs. The known subtypes of Influenza A virus that create influenza in pigs and are endemic in pigs are H1N1, H1N2, H3N1 and H3N2.

Horse flu

Main article: Horse flu

Horse flu (or "Equine influenza") refers to varieties of Influenza A virus that affect horses. Horse 'flu viruses were only isolated in 1956. There are two main types of virus called equine-1 (H7N7) which commonly affects horse heart muscle and equine-2 (H3N8) which is usually more severe.

Dog flu

Main article: Dog flu

Dog flu (or "canine influenza") refers to varieties of Influenza A virus that affect dogs. The equine influenza virus H3N8 was found to infect and kill greyhound race dogs that had died from a respiratory illness at a Florida racetrack in January 2004.

H3N8

Main article: H3N8

H3N8 is now endemic in birds, horses and dogs.

Human influenza virus

Japanese commuter wearing a face mask.

"Human influenza virus" usually refers to those subtypes that spread widely among humans. H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 are the only known Influenza A virus subtypes currently circulating among humans.

Genetic factors in distinguishing between "human flu viruses" and "avian influenza viruses" include:

PB2: (RNA polymerase): Amino acid (or residue) position 627 in the PB2 protein encoded by the PB2 RNA gene. Until H5N1, all known avian influenza viruses had a Glu at position 627, while all human influenza viruses had a lysine.

HA: (hemagglutinin): Avian influenza HA bind alpha 2-3 sialic acid receptors while human influenza HA bind alpha 2-6 sialic acid receptors. Swine influenza viruses have the ability to bind both types of sialic acid receptors.

"About 52 key genetic changes distinguish avian influenza strains from those that spread easily among people, according to researchers in Taiwan, who analyzed the genes of more than 400 A type flu viruses." "How many mutations would make an avian virus capable of infecting humans efficiently, or how many mutations would render an influenza virus a pandemic strain, is difficult to predict. We have examined sequences from the 1918 strain, which is the only pandemic influenza virus that could be entirely derived from avian strains. Of the 52 species-associated positions, 16 have residues typical for human strains; the others remained as avian signatures. The result supports the hypothesis that the 1918 pandemic virus is more closely related to the avian influenza A virus than are other human influenza viruses."

Human flu symptoms usually include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis and, in severe cases, severe breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. The severity of the infection will depend to a large part on the state of the infected person's immune system and if the victim has been exposed to the strain before, and is therefore partially immune.

Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza in a human is far worse, killing 50% of humans that catch it. In one case, a boy with H5N1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu-like symptoms.

The Influenza A virus subtypes that have been confirmed in humans, ordered by the number of known human pandemic deaths, are:

H1N1 caused "Spanish Flu" and the 2009 swine flu outbreak

H2N2 caused "Asian Flu" in the late 1950s

H3N2 caused "Hong Kong Flu" in the late 1960s

H5N1 considered a global influenza pandemic threat through its spread in the mid-2000s

H7N7 has unusual zoonotic potential

H1N2 is currently endemic in humans and pigs

H9N2, H7N2, H7N3, H5N2, H10N7.

H1N1

Main article: H1N1

H1N1 is currently pandemic in both human and pig populations. A variant of H1N1 was responsible for the Spanish flu pandemic that killed some 50 million to 100 million people worldwide over about a year in 1918 and 1919. Another variant was named a pandemic threat in the 2009 swine flu outbreak. Controversy arose in October, 2005, after the H1N1 genome was published in the journal, Science, because of fears that this information could be used for bioterrorism.

H2N2

Main article: H2N2

The Asian Flu was a pandemic outbreak of H2N2 avian influenza that originated in China in 1957, spread worldwide that same year during which a influenza vaccine was developed, lasted until 1958 and caused between one and four million deaths.

H3N2

Main article: H3N2

H3N2 is currently endemic in both human and pig populations. It evolved from H2N2 by antigenic shift and caused the Hong Kong Flu pandemic of 1968 and 1969 that killed up to 750,000. "An early-onset, severe form of influenza A H3N2 made headlines when it claimed the lives of several children in the United States in late 2003."

The dominant strain of annual flu in January 2006 is H3N2. Measured resistance to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine in H3N2 has increased from 1% in 1994 to 12% in 2003 to 91% in 2005.

"[C]ontemporary human H3N2 influenza viruses are now endemic in pigs in southern China and can reassort with avian H5N1 viruses in this intermediate host."

H5N1

Main article: H5N1

H5N1 is the world's major influenza pandemic threat.

"When he compared the 1918 virus with today's human flu viruses, Dr. Taubenberger noticed that it had alterations in just 25 to 30 of the virus's 4,400 amino acids. Those few changes turned a bird virus into a killer that could spread from person to person."

H7N7

Main article: H7N7

H7N7 has unusual zoonotic potential. In 2003 in Netherlands 89 people were confirmed to have H7N7 influenza virus infection following an outbreak in poultry on several farms. One death was recorded.

H1N2

Main article: H1N2

H1N2 is currently endemic in both human and pig populations. The new H1N2 strain appears to have resulted from the reassortment of the genes of the currently circulating influenza H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes. The hemagglutinin protein of the H1N2 virus is similar to that of the currently circulating H1N1 viruses and the neuraminidase protein is similar to that of the current H3N2 viruses.

H9N2

Main article: H9N2

Low pathogenic avian influenza A (H9N2) infection was confirmed in 1999, in China and Hong Kong in two children, and in 2003 in Hong Kong in one child. All three fully recovered.

H7N2

Main article: H7N2

One person in New York in 2003 and one person in Virginia in 2002 were found to have serologic evidence of infection with H7N2. Both fully recovered.

H7N3

Main article: H7N3

In North America, the presence of avian influenza strain H7N3 was confirmed at several poultry farms in British Columbia in February 2004. As of April 2004, 18 farms had been quarantined to halt the spread of the virus. Two cases of humans with avian influenza have been confirmed in that region. "Symptoms included conjunctivitis and mild influenza-like illness." Both fully recovered.

H5N2

Main article: H5N2

Japan's Health Ministry said Jan, 2006 that poultry farm workers in Ibaraki prefecture may have been exposed to H5N2 in 2005. The H5N2 antibody titers of paired sera of 13 subjects increased fourfold or more.

H10N7

Main article: H10N7

In 2004 in Egypt H10N7 was reported for the first time in humans. It caused illness in two infants in Egypt. One child father is a poultry merchant.

Evolution

See also: Punctuated equilibrium

Taubenberger says:

"All influenza A pandemics since [the Spanish flu pandemic], and indeed almost all cases of influenza A worldwide (excepting human infections from avian viruses such as H5N1 and H7N7), have been caused by descendants of the 1918 virus, including "drifted" H1N1 viruses and reassorted H2N2 and H3N2 viruses. The latter are composed of key genes from the 1918 virus, updated by subsequently incorporated avian influenza genes that code for novel surface proteins, making the 1918 virus indeed the "mother" of all pandemics.

Researchers from the National Institutes of Health used data from the Influenza Genome Sequencing Project and concluded that during the ten-year period examined most of the time the hemagglutinin gene in H3N2 showed no significant excess of mutations in the antigenic regions while an increasing variety of strains accumulated. This resulted in one of the variants eventually achieving higher fitness, becoming dominant, and in a brief interval of rapid evolution rapidly sweeping through the population and eliminating most other variants.

See also

Animal virology

ACAM-FLU-A

Notes

^ "Avian influenza (" bird flu") - Fact sheet". WHO. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/avian_influenza/en/. 

^ a b Klenk et al. (2008). "Avian Influenza: Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis and Host Range". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6. http://www.horizonpress.com/avir. 

^ a b Kawaoka Y (editor). (2006). Influenza Virology: Current Topics. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-06-6 . http://www.horizonpress.com/flu. 

^ CIDRAP - Center for Infectious Disease Research And Policy Pandemic Influenza Overview

^ whitehouse.gov National Strategy for Pandemic Influenza - Introduction - "Although remarkable advances have been made in science and medicine during the past century, we are constantly reminded that we live in a universe of microbes - viruses, bacteria, protozoa and fungi that are forever changing and adapting themselves to the human host and the defenses that humans create. Influenza viruses are notable for their resilience and adaptability. While science has been able to develop highly effective vaccines and treatments for many infectious diseases that threaten public health, acquiring these tools is an ongoing challenge with the influenza virus. Changes in the genetic makeup of the virus require us to develop new vaccines on an annual basis and forecast which strains are likely to predominate. As a result, and despite annual vaccinations, the U.S. faces a burden of influenza that results in approximately 36,000 deaths and more than 200,000 hospitalizations each year. In addition to this human toll, influenza is annually responsible for a total cost of over $10 billion in the U.S. A pandemic, or worldwide outbreak of a new influenza virus, could dwarf this impact by overwhelming our health and medical capabilities, potentially resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths, millions of hospitalizations, and hundreds of billions of dollars in direct and indirect costs. This Strategy will guide our preparedness and response activities to mitigate that impact."

^ Daum LT, Shaw MW, Klimov AI, et al. (August 2005). "Influenza A (H3N2) outbreak, Nepal". Emerging Infect. Dis. 11 (8): 118691. PMID 16102305. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol11no08/05-0302.htm. 

"The 20032004 influenza season was severe in terms of its impact on illness because of widespread circulation of antigenically distinct influenza A (H3N2) Fujian-like viruses. These viruses first appeared late during the 20022003 influenza season and continued to persist as the dominant circulating strain throughout the subsequent 20032004 influenza season, replacing the A/Panama/2007/99-like H3N2 viruses (1). Of the 172 H3N2 viruses genetically characterized by the Department of Defense in 20032004, only 1 isolate (from Thailand) belonged to the A/Panama-like lineage. In February 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) changed the H3N2 component for the 20042005 influenza vaccine to afford protection against the widespread emergence of Fujian-like viruses (2). The annually updated trivalent vaccine consists of hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein components from influenza H3N2, H1N1, and B viruses."

^ a b Mahmoud, Adel A. F; Institute of Medicine; Knobler, Stacey; Mack, Alison (2005). The threat of pandemic influenza: are we ready?: workshop summary. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press. pp. 126. ISBN 0-309-09504-2. http://www.nap.edu/books/0309095042/html/126.html. "H5N1 virus is now endemic in poultry in Asia (Table 2-1) and has gained an entrenched ecological niche from which to present a long-term pandemic threat to humans. At present, these viruses are poorly transmitted from poultry to humans, and there is no conclusive evidence of human-to-human transmission. However, continued, extensive exposure of the human population to H5N1 viruses increases the likelihood that the viruses will acquire the necessary characteristics for efficient human-to-human transmission through genetic mutation or reassortment with a prevailing human influenza A virus. Furthermore, contemporary human H3N2 influenza viruses are now endemic in pigs in southern China (Peiris et al., 2001) and can reassort with avian H5N1 viruses in this 'intermediate host.' Therefore, it is imperative that outbreaks of H5N1 disease in poultry in Asia are rapidly and sustainably controlled. The seasonality of the disease in poultry, together with the control measures already implemented, are likely to reduce temporarily the frequency of H5N1 influenza outbreaks and the probability of human infection." 

^ Clinical Services Journal article Avian influenza issues analysed published March 2006

^ MicrobiologyBytes: Virology: Orthomyxoviruses

^ UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot entry P09345 Complete sequence of a cDNA clone of the hemagglutinin gene of influenza A/Chicken/Scotland/59 (H5N1) virus: comparison with contemporary North American and European strains.

^ Mahmoud, Adel A. F (2005) p 30

^ Mahmoud, Adel A. F (2005) p 82

"Interestingly, recombinant influenza viruses containing the 1918 HA and NA and up to three additional genes derived from the 1918 virus (the other genes being derived from the A/WSN/33 virus) were all highly virulent in mice (Tumpey et al., 2004). Furthermore, expression microarray analysis performed on whole lung tissue of mice infected with the 1918 HA/ NA recombinant showed increased upregulation of genes involved in apoptosis, tissue injury, and oxidative damage (Kash et al., 2004). These findings were unusual because the viruses with the 1918 genes had not been adapted to mice. The completion of the sequence of the entire genome of the 1918 virus and the reconstruction and characterization of viruses with 1918 genes under appropriate biosafety conditions will shed more light on these findings and should allow a definitive examination of this explanation. Antigenic analysis of recombinant viruses possessing the 1918 HA and NA by hemagglutination inhibition tests using ferret and chicken antisera suggested a close relationship with the A/swine/Iowa/30 virus and H1N1 viruses isolated in the 1930s (Tumpey et al., 2004), further supporting data of Shope from the 1930s (Shope, 1936). Interestingly, when mice were immunized with different H1N1 virus strains, challenge studies using the 1918-like viruses revealed partial protection by this treatment, suggesting that current vaccination strategies are adequate against a 1918-like virus (Tumpey et al., 2004)."

^ Mahmoud, Adel A. F (2005) p 285

"As of October 2001, the potential for use of infectious agents, such as anthrax, as weapons has been firmly established. It has been suggested that attacks on a nation agriculture might be a preferred form of terrorism or economic disruption that would not have the attendant stigma of infecting and causing disease in humans. Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus is on every top ten list available for potential agricultural bioweapon agents, generally following foot and mouth disease virus and Newcastle disease virus at or near the top of the list. Rapid detection techniques for bioweapon agents are a critical need for the first-responder community, on a par with vaccine and antiviral development in preventing spread of disease."

^ "Avian influenza A(H5N1)- update 31: Situation (poultry) in Asia: need for a long-term response, comparison with previous outbreaks". Epidemic and Pandemic Alert and Response (EPR). WHO. 2004. http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_03_02/en/. 

Known outbreaks of highly pathogenic flu in poultry 1959-2003.

^ NCBI - NLM - NIH National Center for Biotechnology Information (part of) U.S. National Library of Medicine (part of) National Institutes of Health (part of) US Government - Science. 1982 Feb 26;215(4536):1129-31. - Mass mortality of harbor seals: pneumonia associated with influenza A virus. - "More than 400 harbor seals, most of them immature, died along the New England coast between December 1979 and October 1980 of acute pneumonia associated with influenza virus, A/Seal/Mass/1/180 (H7N7). The virus has avian characteristics, replicates principally in mammals, and causes mild respiratory disease in experimentally infected seals. Concurrent infection with a previously undescribed mycoplasma or adverse environmental conditions may have triggered the epizootic. The similarities between this epizootic and other seal mortalities in the past suggest that these events may be linked by common biological and environmental factors."

^ Mahmoud, Adel A. F (2005) p 15

"Unlike most other affected countries, Indonesia also instituted mass vaccination of healthy domestic birds against H5N1, followed by routine vaccination (China has a similar policy; other Asian countries are considering it [ProMED-mail, 2004j]) (Soebandrio, 2004). This is a risky strategy, because vaccinated birds can develop asymptomatic infections that allow virus to spread, mutate, and recombine (ProMED-mail, 2004j). Intensive surveillance is required to detect these ilent epidemics in time to curtail them. In Mexico, for example, mass vaccination of chickens against epidemic H5N2 influenza in 1995 has had to continue in order to control a persistent and evolving virus (Lee et al., 2004)."

^ CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - Transmission of Influenza A Viruses Between Animals and People

^ Mahmoud, Adel A. F (2005) p 27

^ BBC News Early bird flu warning for Dutch - 6 November 2005

^ a b Tweed SA, Skowronski DM, David ST, et al. (December 2004). "Human illness from avian influenza H7N3, British Columbia". Emerging Infect. Dis. 10 (12): 21969. PMID 15663860. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no12/04-0961.htm. 

^ CDC Key Facts About Avian Influenza (Bird Flu) and Avian Influenza A (H5N1) Virus

^ Bloomberg News article Scientists Move Closer to Understanding Flu Virus Evolution published August 28, 2006

^ Chen GW, Chang SC, Mok CK, et al. (September 2006). "Genomic signatures of human versus avian influenza A viruses". Emerging Infect. Dis. 12 (9): 135360. PMID 17073083. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol12no09/06-0276.htm. 

^ de Jong MD, Bach VC, Phan TQ, et al. (February 2005). "Fatal avian influenza A (H5N1) in a child presenting with diarrhea followed by coma". N. Engl. J. Med. 352 (7): 68691. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa044307. PMID 15716562. http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/short/352/7/686. 

^ Mahmoud, Adel A. F (2005) p 7

^ Detailed chart of its evolution here at PDF called Ecology and Evolution of the Flu

^ Mahmoud, Adel A. F (2005) p 115

"There is particular pressure to recognize and heed the lessons of past influenza pandemics in the shadow of the worrisome 20032004 flu season. An early-onset, severe form of influenza A H3N2 made headlines when it claimed the lives of several children in the United States in late 2003. As a result, stronger than usual demand for annual flu inactivated vaccine outstripped the vaccine supply, of which 10 to 20 percent typically goes unused. Because statistics on pediatric flu deaths had not been collected previously, it is unknown if the 20032004 season witnessed a significant change in mortality patterns."

^ Reason New York Times This Season's Flu Virus Is Resistant to 2 Standard Drugs By Altman Published: January 15, 2006

^ New York Times Published: November 8, 2005 - Hazard in Hunt for New Flu: Looking for Bugs in All the Wrong Places

^ a b CDC Avian Influenza Infection in Humans

^ CBS News article Dozens In Japan May Have Mild Bird Flu January 2006.

^ Ogata T, Yamazaki Y, Okabe N, Nakamura Y, Tashiro M, et al. (July 2008). Human H5N2 Avian Influenza Infection in Japan and the Factors Associated with High H5N2-Neutralizing Antibody TiterJ Epidemiol 18: 160-6.

^ niaid.nih.gov Timeline of Human Flu Pandemics

^ CDC Article 1918 Influenza: the Mother of All Pandemics by Jeffery K. Taubenberger published January 2006

^ Science Daily article New Study Has Important Implications For Flu Surveillance published October 27, 2006

Further reading

Official sources

Further information: H5N1

Avian influenza and Influenza Pandemics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Avian influenza FAQ from the World Health Organization

Avian influenza information from the Food and Agriculture Organization

U.S. Government's avian influenza information website

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) Stockholm, Sweden

General information

Further information: Flu

"The Bird Flu and You" Full-color poster provided by the Center for Technology and National Security Policy at the National Defense University, in collaboration with the National Security Health Policy Center

Influenza Report 2006 Online book. Research level quality information. Highly recommended.

Special issue on avian flu from Nature

Nature Reports: Homepage: Avian Flu

Beigel JH, Farrar J, Han AM, et al. (September 2005). "Avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans". N. Engl. J. Med. 353 (13): 137485. doi:10.1056/NEJMra052211. PMID 16192482. http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/353/13/1374. 

Pandemic Influenza: Domestic Preparedness Efforts Congressional Research Service Report on Pandemic Preparedness.

A guide to bird flu and its symptoms from BBC Health

A Variety of Avian Flu Images and Pictures

Avian flu, bioterror, animals (page in an online book) "Highly pathogenic avian influenza virus is on every top ten list available for potential agricultural bioweapon agents"

'The Threat of Bird Flu': HealthPolitics.com

Is a Global Flu Pandemic Imminent? from Infection Control Today.

Bird Flu is a Real Pandemic Threat to Humans by Leonard Crane, author of Ninth Day of Creation.

Links to Bird Flu pictures (Hardin MD/Univ of Iowa)

Flu Wiki

Yoshihiro Kawaoka (2006). Influenza Virology: Current Topics. Caister Academic Pr. ISBN 1-904455-06-9. 

Francisco Sobrino; Thomas Mettenleiter (2008). Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Pr. ISBN 1-904455-22-0. 

News

Current status (Google news of avian OR bird flu OR influenza)

Flu Breaking News Avian flu, common symptom, influenza vaccine and flu shot and latest news

Global Pandemic News : 247 online news feeds on the threat of Bird Flu and a Global Pandemic

External links

Influenza Research Database Database of influenza genomic sequences and related information.

Viralzone: Influenzavirus A

Health-EU portal EU response to influenza

European Commission - Public Health EU coordination on Pandemic (H1N1) 2009

v  d  e

Influenza

General topics

Research - Vaccine - Treatment - Genome sequencing - Reassortment - Superinfection - Season

Influenza viruses

Orthomyxoviridae - Influenza A - Influenza B - Influenza C

Influenza A virus

Subtypes

H1N1 - H1N2 - H2N2 - H2N3 - H3N1 - H3N2 - H3N8 - H5N1 - H5N2 - H5N3 - H5N8 - H5N9 - H7N1 - H7N2 - H7N3 - H7N4 - H7N7 - H9N2 - H10N7

H1N1

       Pandemics

1918 flu pandemic (Spanish flu) - 2009 flu pandemic (Swine flu)

Science

2009 A/H1N1

H5N1

Science

Genetic structure - Transmission and infection - Global spread - Clinical Trials - Human mortality - Social impact - Pandemic preparation

        Outbreaks

Croatia (2005) - India (2006) - UK (2007) - West Bengal (2008)

Treatments

Antiviral drug

Arbidol - adamantane derivatives (Amantadine, Rimantadine) - neuraminidase inhibitors (Oseltamivir, Laninamivir, Peramivir, Zanamivir)

Experimental (Peramivir)

Flu vaccines

FluMist - Fluzone

Influenza epidemics & pandemics

       Pandemics

Russian flu (18891890) - Spanish flu - Asian flu - Hong Kong flu - 2009 flu pandemic

Epidemics

Russian flu (19771978) - Fujian flu (H3N2)

Non-human

Mammals

Canine influenza - Cat influenza - Equine influenza (2007 Australian outbreak) - Swine influenza

Non-mammals

Avian influenza - Fujian flu (H5N1)

Related

Influenza-like illness

v  d  e

Infectious diseases  Viral diseases (A8034, 042079)

Oncovirus

DNA virus: HBV (Hepatocellular carcinoma)  HPV (Cervical cancer)  Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (Kaposi's sarcoma)  Epstein-Barr virus (Nasopharyngeal carcinoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, Primary central nervous system lymphoma)  MCPyV (Merkel cell cancer)  SV40

RNA virus: HCV (Hepatocellular carcinoma)  HTLV-I (Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma)

Immune disorders

HIV (AIDS)

Central

nervous system

Encephalitis/

meningitis

DNA virus: JCV (Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy)

RNA virus: MeV (Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis)  LCV (Lymphocytic choriomeningitis)  Arbovirus encephalitis  Orthomyxoviridae (probable) (Encephalitis lethargica)  RV (Rabies)

Myelitis

Poliovirus (Poliomyelitis, Post-polio syndrome)  HTLV-I (Tropical spastic paraparesis)

Eye

Cytomegalovirus (Cytomegalovirus retinitis)  HSV (Herpetic keratitis)

Cardiovascular

CBV (Pericarditis, Myocarditis)

Respiratory

system/

acute viral

nasopharyngitis/

viral pneumonia

DNA virus

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV infection/Infectious mononucleosis)  Cytomegalovirus

RNA virus

IV: SARS coronavirus (Severe acute respiratory syndrome)

V, Orthomyxoviridae: Influenzavirus A/B/C (Influenza/Avian influenza)

V, Paramyxovirus: Human parainfluenza viruses (Parainfluenza)  RSV  hMPV

Digestive system

Oropharynx/Esophagus

MuV (Mumps)  Cytomegalovirus (Cytomegalovirus esophagitis)

Gastroenteritis/

diarrhea

DNA virus: Adenovirus (Adenovirus infection)

RNA virus: Rotavirus  Norovirus  Astrovirus  Coronavirus

Hepatitis

DNA virus: HBV (B)

RNA virus: CBV  HAV (A)  HCV (C)  HDV (D)  HEV (E)  HGV (G)

Pancreatitis

CBV

Skin and

mucous membrane

lesions,

including exanthem

DNA virus

Herpesviridae

HSV (Herpes simplex, Herpetic whitlow)  VZV (Chickenpox, Herpes zoster)  Human herpesvirus 6/Roseolovirus (Exanthema subitum)  KSHV (Kaposi's sarcoma)  Herpes B Virus

Poxviridae

Variola (Smallpox)  MoxV (Monkeypox)  CV (Cowpox)  VV (Vaccinia)  MCV (Molluscum contagiosum)

Other

HPV (Wart/Plantar wart)  Parvovirus B19 (Erythema infectiosum, Reticulocytopenia)

RNA virus

MeV (Measles)  Rubella virus (Rubella, Congenital rubella syndrome)

picornavirus: CAV (Hand, foot and mouth disease, Herpangina)  FMDV (Foot-and-mouth disease)

Urogenital

BK virus  MuV (Mumps)

see also DNA antivirals, RNA antivirals, Antiretroviral drug

Categories: Animal virology | Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 | Microbiology | Orthomyxoviridae | Zoonoses
About the Author

I am an expert from China Auto Suppliers, usually analyzes all kind of industries situation, such as gate valves flanged , electrically operated valve.

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MityVac US Domestic/Asian Cap Adapter Kit $110.95 ? Use with Mityvac cooling system pressure testers to test caps on most models of Domestic and Asian manufactured cars and light trucks? Quickly detects defective cooling system caps, a commonly overlooked cause of cooling system failures? Adapters connect to tester using self-locking quick disconnects that won't leak under pressure? Molded adapter design is comfortable to grip while attaching and removing cap? Manufactured from lightweight, durable nylon for a lifetime of use? Packaged in a custom molded case with space for four(4) additional adaptersApplications:? Includes four (4) adapters, MITMVA200, MITMVA201, MITMVA202, and MITMVA203for use with Mityvac cooling system pressure testers to test cooling system caps found on the majority of Domestic and Asian manufactured cars and light trucksIncludes:? MITMVA200 Cooling System Cap Adapter (US and foreign cars)? MITMVA201 Cooling System Cap Adapter (Asian cars)? MITMVA202 Cooling System Cap Adapter (Asian Cars)? MITMVA203 Cooling System Cap Adapter (US and foreign cars)? Custom Molded Case? User's Manual (English, French, Spanish, German)

Waekon WAE47001 Domestic/Asian Adapter Kit for EGR Tester $250.16 This kit expands the capability of the Waekon 47062 EGR tester. Includes: 7 Adapters for testing Ford Chrysler Asian and other nonlinear digital GM EGR systems. Domestic/Asian EGR Adapter Kit. Repair only up to 1 yr. Durability and functionality exceeds any other brands. Made from the finest materials.

Domestic/Asian Adapter Kit For Egr Tester $153.95 ? This kit expands the capability of the Waekon 47062 EGR tester. ? Kit includes: 7 adapters for testing Ford, Chrysler, Asian, and other non-linear/digital GM EGR systemsBy Waekon.

Asian Women As Transnational Domestic Workers $34.13 No Synopsis Available

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Asian Rivalries $24.95 The most typical treatment of international relations is to conceive it as a battle between two antagonistic states volleying back and forth. In reality, interstate relations are often at least two-level games in which decision-makers operate not only in an international environment but also in a competitive domestic context. Given that interstate rivalries are responsible for a disproportionate share of discord in world politics, this book sets out to explain just how these two-level rivalries really work. By reference to specific cases, specialists on Asian rivalries examine three related questions: what is the mix of internal (domestic politics) and external (interstate politics) stimuli in the dynamics of their rivalries; in what types of circumstances do domestic politics become the predominant influence on rivalry dynamics; when domestic politics become predominant, is their effect more likely to lead to the escalation or de-escalation of rivalry hostility? By pulling together the threads laid out by each contributor, the editors create a 'grounded theory' for interstate rivalries that breaks new ground in international relations theory.

Asian Tourism $115 Tourism in Asia is growing faster than anywhere else in the world, driven by the increasing wealth of countries like Taiwan, South Korea and Malaysia, and by the huge populations of China, India and Indonesia -the first second and fourth biggest countries in the works. Despite the significance of the tourism industry in this area it is still under researched. Asian Tourism is a unique book and the first to addresses this imbalance by providing a high quality edited collection of chapters which explore the domestic and intraregional tourism in Asia. Divided into three sections it explores: * Policy aspects of tourism development and the role of the public sector exploring issues such as: Cross-national tourism collaboration in Asia, The growth of aviation in Asia and Economic Corridors and Ecotourism. * Changing markets exploring issues such as: The role of Japanese popular culture in Asian tourism, Management Challenges for Bali's Tourism Industry and religious tourism in North India. * Destination and industry responses exploring issues such as: Tourism-Generated Employment in Cambodia, sex workers and tourism in India and responsible destination development in the Philippines. With contributions from well respected and eminent names in the field, Asian Tourism provides a ground breaking insight into topical, industry focused issues while benefiting from academic depth and rigour and an awareness of tourism history in this region.

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Domestic Violence in Asian American Communities : A Cultural Overview $64.35 No Synopsis Available

Asian Insolvency Systems $84 As Asian markets are now increasingly integrated in the world economy their domestic insolvency systems need to meet the expectations of international investors and lenders. Many Asian jurisdictions are responding by reforming  insolvency laws, introducing new procedures and strengthening institutions, but others are much less active. This conference proceedings includes papers showing how far various Asian countries have come in building effective and predictable insolvency systems and shows to what extent their systems provide confidence to investors and lenders.

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Waekon Industries WAE47001 Domestic/Asian EGR Adapter Kit $250.16 This kit expands the capability of the Waekon 47062 GM Linear/Digital EGR System Tester. Identify sticking valves sensor flat spots and no code intermittents on Ford Chrysler Asian and nonlinear/digital GM EGR systems. Pinpoint intermittent EGR problems in 5 minutes. Height: 9.90 . Length: 13.10 . Width: 3.70 .

The Transnational Politics of Asian Americans $30.95 As America’s most ethnically diverse foreign-born population, Asian Americans can puzzle political observers. This volume’s multidisciplinary team of contributors employ a variety of methodologies—including quantitative, ethnographic, and historical—to illustrate how transnational ties between the U.S. and Asia have shaped, and are increasingly defining, Asian American politics in our multicultural society.   Original essays by U.S.- and Asian-based scholars discuss Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Indian, Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese communities from Boston to Honolulu. The volume also shows how the grassroots activism of America’s “newest minority” both reflects and is instrumental in broader processes of political change throughout the Pacific. Addressing the call for more global approaches to racial and ethnic politics, contributors describe how Asian immigrants strategically navigate the hurdles to domestic incorporation and equality by turning their political sights and energies toward Asia. These essays convincingly demonstrate that Asian American political participation in the U.S. does not consist simply of domestic actions with domestic ends.

Southeast Asian Affairs 2006 $60.9 Southeast Asian Affairs 2006 provides an informed and readable analysis of the events and developments in the region in 2005. The first four articles present the political and economic overview of the region, a nuanced analysis on terrorism, and the role of Japan in East Asian community-building efforts. Eleven country reviews as well as five special theme articles follow, delving into domestic political, economic, security, and social developments during 2005 and their implications for count...

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Asian Regional Governance $44.95 This book looks at the changing global and domestic political economies shaping the new regionalism in Asia, and examines the relationship between regional domestic, political and economic structures and forms of regional governance.

East Asian Finance $24.99 This study analyzes the key issues and constraints - in terms of efficiency, access and safety and soundness - faced by East Asian countries in developing their financial markets which are at different stages of development, drawing on global experience. The study takes stock of the initiatives being undertaken at the regional level to foster greater financial integration as a means of deepening and diversifying financial markets, and on the policy issues that need to be addressed at the domestic level to deepen and diversify financial markets and to actually benefit from the actions that are being taken at the regional level.

Southeast Asian Affairs 2007 $65.9 Southeast Asian Affairs 2007 provides an informed and readable analysis of the events and developments in the region in 2006. In the regional section of this volume, the first two articles provide the political and economic overview of Southeast Asia, while the third and fourth examine the character of political development in the region. Eleven country reviews as well as five special theme articles follow, delving into domestic political, economic, security, and social developments during 20...

Women in Asian Management $254.9 According to a recent study by the ILO (2001), womens share of the labour force is increasing worldwide. Today, womens participation rate in the labour force is over 40 per cent of the global workforce. Higher educational levels and falling fertility rates have contributed to this increased participation. There is also some evidence that women in some Asian countries may be less marginalised in their advancement into top managerial positions than their counterparts elsewhere. As women become more educated and qualified for managerial positions, the number of Asian women managers and executives is predicted to rise over the next decade. This book examines the opportunities and barriers for women managers in Asia and presents an update on their progress in management.This book was previously published as a special issue of the Asian Pacific Business Review. Author: Yukongdi, Vimolwan/ Benson, John Binding Type: Hardcover Number of Pages: 156 Publication Date: 2005/12/20 Language: English Dimensions: 9.92 x 7.03 x 0.68 inches

An East Asian Renaissance $24.99 The World Bank has completed a major study of East Asian growth every four years, beginning with the seminal The East Asian Miracle in 1993. Three major developments since the early 1990s call for a reexamination of East Asian growth: the meteoric rise of China, the economic crisis of the nineties, and the rapid growth of cities. This report addresses how development strategies should be adapted in response to these changes. The region has been transformed by these developments, changing from a set of countries that rapidly integrated with the world to one that is also aggressively exploiting the sources of dynamism that lie within Asia. But countries in East Asia now face the domestic side-effects of rapid growth driven by international integration: congestion, conflict, and corruption. The challenge now is to complement global and regional integration with domestic integration. This requires ensuring vibrant cities that are not only linked to the outside world but also well-integrated domestically, strengthening social cohesion and reducing inequality, and providing clean governments which efficiently reinvest the economic returns that accompany fast growth.

Asian Rivalries (Hardcover) $159.72 The most typical treatment of international relations is to conceive it as a battle between two antagonistic states volleying back and forth. In reality, interstate relations are often at least two-level games in which decision-makers operate not only in an international environment but also in a competitive domestic context.Given that interstate rivalries are responsible for a disproportionate share of discord in world politics, this book sets out to explain just how these two-level rivalries really work.By reference to specific cases, specialists on Asian rivalries examine three related questions: what is the mix of internal (domestic politics) and external (interstate politics) stimuli in the dynamics of their rivalries; in what types of circumstances do domestic politics become the predominant influence on rivalry dynamics; when domestic politics become predominant, is their effect more likely to lead to the escalation or de-escalation of rivalry hostility? By pulling together the threads laid out by each contributor, the editors create a `grounded theory` for interstate rivalries that breaks new ground in international relations theory.

Asian Rivalries (Paperback) $61.29 The most typical treatment of international relations is to conceive it as a battle between two antagonistic states volleying back and forth. In reality, interstate relations are often at least two-level games in which decision-makers operate not only in an international environment but also in a competitive domestic context.Given that interstate rivalries are responsible for a disproportionate share of discord in world politics, this book sets out to explain just how these two-level rivalries really work.By reference to specific cases, specialists on Asian rivalries examine three related questions: what is the mix of internal (domestic politics) and external (interstate politics) stimuli in the dynamics of their rivalries; in what types of circumstances do domestic politics become the predominant influence on rivalry dynamics; when domestic politics become predominant, is their effect more likely to lead to the escalation or de-escalation of rivalry hostility? By pulling together the threads laid out by each contributor, the editors create a `grounded theory` for interstate rivalries that breaks new ground in international relations theory.

Domestic Tourism in Asia $117 Many countries have a rich tradition of domestic travel and holidaying which not only predates but exceeds mass international travel. This is particularly the case in Asia where recent economic prosperity and trends in globalization have not merely spurred, but continue to shape traditions in domestic tourism.This book is the first to address specifically the continuities and changes in domestic tourism in Asia. It explores the ethos of domestic travel and holiday-making in order to understand the distinctive common strands that underlie conventional and contemporary tourism practices, against the local and global backdrop. A considerable range of countries is covered in the case studies, including those with patrimonial histories, namely China and India, the economically developed nation-state of Japan and the microstates of Taiwan, Singapore, Macao and Hong Kong, besides the coastal countries of Malaysia, Philippines, Laos and Vietnam, as well as the land-locked countries of Kyrgyzstan and Mongolia. The book presents some of the many interfaces of Asian cultural and natural heritages with tourism, while giving due considerations to today's political and economic realities.

The Politics of the Asian Economic Crisis $3.95 In the summer of 1997, a tidal wave of economic problems swept across Asia. Currencies plummeted, banks failed, GNP stagnated, unemployment soared, and exports stalled. In short, the vaunted "Asian Economic Miracle" became the "Asian Economic Crisis" -- with serious repercussions for nations and markets around the world. While the headlines are still fresh, a group of experts on the region presents the first account to focus on the political causes and implications of the crisis. The events of 199798 involved not just property values, financial flows, portfolio makeup, and debt ratios, they argue, but also the power relationships that shaped those economic indicators. As they examine the domestic, regional, and international politics that underlay the economic collapse, the authors analyze the reasons why the crisis affected the nations of Asia in radically different ways. The authors also consider whether the crisis indicates a radical change in Asia's economic future.

South Asian Bond Markets $24.99 The financial sectors in South Asia Region (SAR) are dominated by commercial banks, which account for the vast majority of the financial system's assets. The domestic debt markets including the government bond and corporate bond markets are at an early stage of development and there are few institutional investors. In recent years, countries in SAR have attempted to develop local debt markets, although the pace of development remains uneven and slow due to many regulatory and institutional impediments. With the notable exception of India, governments in SAR have yet to implement measures required for the proper development of the domestic bond markets. The book provides a comprehensive overview of the major bond markets in SAR (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) highlighting the areas which need further reforms. It is hoped that the book will contribute to our knowledge of bond markets in South Asian countries and create a broad based ownership of the recommendations made by the authors.

Lessons from the Asian Financial Crisis $44.95 The contributors provide an overview of developments in the affected countries during the 1997 Asian financial crisis; lessons learned and corrective measures taken; lessons learned by regional and international actors; how domestic, regional, and international politics have affected the outcomes; the identification of potential future problems, and levels of preparedness.

OTC OTC3822 Nemisys Vivid Scan Tool with 2011 Domestic and Asian OBD II Kit $1365.05 Features and Benefits: . New Nemisystrade; loaded with New OEM based 2011 Domestic and OBDAsian coverage back to 1983. Coverage on engine body and chassis systems. Includes the NEW CodeAssisttrade; experiencedbased Confirmed Fixestrade; from Identifixreg;. Data / Sensor Info repair information. Professional carrying case Includes Nemisystrade; scan tool loaded with New OEM based 2011 Domestic and Asian coverage back to 1983 for engine body and chassis systems. Includes the NEW CodeAssisttrade; Library of experiencedbased Confirmed Fixestrade; from Identifixreg; and Data / Sensor Info repair information; OBD II smart cable; ScanMate Lite PC software; USB to PC cable; Quick Start Guide included with CDbased manuals in Spanish French English; and a professional carrying case. Bonus offer ndash; A coupon for a 60 Day Test Drive of the Identifix DirectHit website is included a 240 value

Groundwater Management in Asian Cities $109 In 2007, the world's urban population surpassed the number of people living in rural areas and is still growing. The number of city dwellers who do not have access to piped water and rely on groundwater is also increasing. In many Asian cities, groundwater is not only the source of domestic water but also an important resource for industrial development, making better management of groundwater resources essential for sustainable development. Because groundwater is easier to access and costs less than water from piped systems, groundwater abstraction cannot be easily regulated. Policies for groundwater management adopted in Japan and other Asian countries are compared, and technologies for efficient use of groundwater are elucidated. Groundwater contamination is also a serious problem that exacerbates water scarcity in Asian cities. Case studies illustrate the cause and consequences of naturally occurring contaminants such as arsenic and fluoride, and groundwater contamination due to anthropogenic contaminants is described. Also discussed are technologies for treating contaminated groundwater to reduce the health risks of drinking contaminated groundwater.

Asian Tourism: Growth and Change $160.62 Tourism in Asia is growing faster than anywhere else in the world, driven by the increasing wealth of countries like Taiwan, South Korea and Malaysia, and by the huge populations of China, India and Indonesia -the first second and fourth biggest countries in the works. Despite the significance of the tourism industry in this area it is still under researched. Asian Tourism is a unique book and the first to addresses this imbalance by providing a high quality edited collection of chapters which explore the domestic and intraregional tourism in Asia. Divided into three sections it explores: * Policy aspects of tourism development and the role of the public sector exploring issues such as: Cross-national tourism collaboration in Asia, The growth of aviation in Asia and Economic Corridors and Ecotourism. * Changing markets exploring issues such as: The role of Japanese popular culture in Asian tourism, Management Challenges for Bali's Tourism Industry and religious tourism in North India. * Destination and industry responses exploring issues such as: Tourism-Generated Employment in Cambodia, sex workers and tourism in India and responsible destination development in the Philippines. With contributions from well respected and eminent names in the field, Asian Tourism provides a ground breaking insight into topical, industry focused issues while benefiting from academic depth and rigour and an awareness of tourism history in this region.

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Veterinary Hematology: Atlas of Common Domestic and Non-Domestic Species $59.77 The long-awaited Second Edition of "Veterinary Hematology: Atlas of Common" "Domestic and Non-Domestic Species" serves as a major update to this essential introductory hematology atlas. In addition to a thorough update of all chapters, the new edition now includes coverage of laboratory animals and pocket pets, two new chapters devoted entirely to avian and exotic animals, and a PC compatible CD providing a wealth of additional hematological images. Now fully updated and revised, the Second Edition is the must-have veterinary hematology atlas for veterinarians, veterinary students, and veterinary technicians alike.

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