Combination Sae Tools

Combination Sae Tools

Steel - Vertical slurry pump EVR-100R

Material properties Iron-carbon phase diagram, showing the conditions necessary to form different phases Iron, like most metals, is found in the Earth's crust only in the form of an ore, ie. combined with other elements such as oxygen or sulfur. Typical iron-containing minerals include Fe2O3he form of iron oxide found as the mineral hematite, and FeS2yrite (fool's gold). Iron is extracted from ore by removing oxygen and combining the ore with a preferred chemical partner such as carbon.

This process, known as smelting, was first applied to metals with lower melting points, such as tin, which melts at approximately 250 C (482 F) and copper, which melts at approximately 1,000 C (1,830 F). In comparison, cast iron melts at approximately 1,370 C (2,500 F). All of these temperatures could be reached with ancient methods that have been used since the Bronze Age. Since the oxidation rate itself increases rapidly beyond 800 C, it is important that smelting take place in a low-oxygen environment. Unlike copper and tin, liquid iron dissolves carbon quite readily. Smelting results in an alloy (pig iron) containing too much carbon to be called steel. The excess carbon and other impurities are removed in a subsequent step. Other materials are often added to the iron/carbon mixture to produce steel with desired properties. Nickel and manganese in steel add to its tensile strength and make austenite more chemically stable, chromium increases hardness and melting temperature, and vanadium also increases hardness while reducing the effects of metal fatigue.

To prevent corrosion, at least 11% chromium is added to steel so that a hard oxide forms on the metal surface; this is known as stainless steel. Tungsten interferes with the formation of cementite, allowing martensite to form with slower quench rates, resulting in high speed steel. On the other hand, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus make steel more brittle, so these commonly found elements must be removed from the ore during processing. The density of steel varies based on the alloying constituents, but usually ranges between 7.75 and 8.05 g/cm3 (0.2800.291 lb/in3). Even in the narrow range of concentrations which make up steel, mixtures of carbon and iron can form a number of different structures, with very different properties. Understanding such properties is essential to making quality steel. At room temperature, the most stable form of iron is the body-centered cubic (BCC) structure -ferrite. It is a fairly soft metallic material that can dissolve only a small concentration of carbon, no more than 0.021 wt% at 723 C (1,333 F), and only 0.005% at 0 C (32 F). If the steel contains more than 0.021% carbon then it transforms into a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, called austenite or -iron. It is also soft and metallic but can dissolve considerably more carbon, as much as 2.1% carbon at 1,148 C (2,098 F)), which reflects the upper carbon content of steel. When steels with less than 0.8% carbon, known as a hypoeutectoid steel, are cooled from an austenitic phase the mixture attempts to revert to the ferrite phase, resulting in an excess of carbon. One way for carbon to leave the austenite is for cementite to precipitate out of the mix, leaving behind iron that is pure enough to take the form of ferrite, resulting in a cementite-ferrite mixture. Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic compound with the chemical formula of Fe3C. At the eutectoid, 0.8% carbon, the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite, named after its resemblance to mother of pearl. For steels that have more than 0.8% carbon the cooled structure takes the form of pearlite and cementite. Perhaps the most important polymorphic form is martensite, a metastable phase which is significantly stronger than other steel phases. When the steel is in an austenitic phase and then quenched it forms into martensite, because the atoms "freeze" in place when the cell structure changes from FCC to BCC. Depending on the carbon content the martensitic phase takes different forms. Below approximately 0.2% carbon it takes an ferrite BCC crystal form, but higher carbon contents take a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure.

There is no thermal activation energy for the transformation from austenite to martensite. Moreover, there is no compositional change so the atoms generally retain their same neighbors. Martensite has a lower density than austenite does, so that transformation between them results in a change of volume. In this case, expansion occurs. Internal stresses from this expansion generally take the form of compression on the crystals of martensite and tension on the remaining ferrite, with a fair amount of shear on both constituents. If quenching is done improperly, the internal stresses can cause a part to shatter as it cools. At the very least, they cause internal work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It is common for quench cracks to form when water quenched, although they may not always be visible. Heat treatment Main article: Heat treating carbon steel There are many types of heat treating processes available to steel. The most common are annealing and quenching and tempering. Annealing is the process of heating the steel to a sufficiently high temperature to soften it. This process occurs through three phases: recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth. The temperature required to anneal steel depends on the type of annealing and the constituents of the alloy. Quenching and tempering first involves heating the steel to the austenite phase, then quenching it in water or oil. This rapid cooling results in a hard and brittle martensitic structure. The steel is then tempered, which is just a specialized type of annealing. In this application the annealing (tempering) process transforms some of the martensite into cementite or spheroidite to reduce internal stresses and defects, which ultimately results in a more ductile and fracture-resistant metal. Steel production Iron ore pellets for the production of steel Main article: Steelmaking See also: Steel production by country When iron is smelted from its ore by commercial processes, it contains more carbon than is desirable. To become steel, it must be melted and reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added.

This liquid is then continuously cast into long slabs or cast into ingots. 96% of steel is continuously cast, while only 4000 ingots are cast per year. The ingots are then heated in a soaking pit and hot rolled into slabs, blooms, or billets. Slabs are hot or cold rolled into sheet metal or plates. Billets are hot or cold rolled into bars, rods, and wire. Blooms are hot or cold rolled into structural steel, such as I-beams and rails. In modern foundries these processes often occur in one assembly line, with ore coming in and finished steel coming out. Sometimes after a steel's final rolling it is heat treated for strength, however this is relatively rare. History of steelmaking Bloomery smelting during the Middle Ages Main article: History of ferrous metallurgy Ancient steel Steel was known in antiquity, and may have been produced by managing bloomeries iron-smelting facilities so that the bloom contained carbon. Steel is mentioned in the Bible: Jeremiah 15:12 of the Authorized King James Version, it reads: "Shall iron break the northern iron and the steel?". However, it seems the Hebrews had no word for "steel" but used instead (istoma). The earliest known production of steel is a piece of ironware excavated from an archaeological site in Anatolia and is about 4,000 years old. Other ancient steel comes from East Africa, dating back to 1400 BC. In the 4th century BC steel weapons like the Falcata were produced in the Iberian Peninsula, while Noric steel was used by the Roman military. The Chinese of the Warring States (403221 BC) had quench-hardened steel, while Chinese of the Han Dynasty (202 BC 220 AD) created steel by melting together wrought iron with cast iron, gaining an ultimate product of a carbon-intermediate steel by the 1st century AD. Wootz steel and Damascus steel Main articles: Wootz steel and Damascus steel Evidence of the earliest production of high carbon steel in the Indian Subcontinent was found in Samanalawewa area in Sri Lanka. Wootz steel was produced in India by about 300 BC. Along with their original methods of forging steel, the Chinese had also adopted the production methods of creating Wootz steel, an idea imported into China from India by the 5th century AD. This early steel-making method in Sri Lanka employed the unique use of a wind furnace, blown by the monsoon winds and producing almost pure steel.

Also known as Damascus steel, wootz is famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge. It was originally created from a number of different materials including various trace elements. It was essentially a complicated alloy with iron as its main component. Recent studies have suggested that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though given the technology available at that time, they were produced by chance rather than by design. Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated up with the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil[citation needed], a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did long ago. Crucible steel, formed by slowly heating and cooling pure iron and carbon (typically in the form of charcoal) in a crucible, was produced in Merv by the 9th to 10th century AD. In the 11th century, there is evidence of the production of steel in Song China using two techniques: a "berganesque" method that produced inferior, inhomogeneous steel and a precursor to the modern Bessemer process that utilized partial decarbonization via repeated forging under a cold blast. Modern steelmaking A Bessemer converter in Sheffield, England In Europe since 1600s, the first step in producing steel has been the smelting iron ore into pig iron in a blast furnace from ore, charcoal, and air. Modern methods use coke instead of charcoal, which has proven to be a great deal cheaper. Processes starting from bar iron Main articles: Blister steel and Crucible steel In these processes pig iron was "fined" in a finery forge to produce bar iron (wrought iron), which was then used in steel-making. The production of steel by the cementation process was described in a treatise published in Prague in 1574 and was in use in Nuremberg from 1601. A similar process for case hardening armour and files was described in a book published in Naples in 1589. The process was introduced to England in about 1614. It was produced by Sir Basil Brooke at Coalbrookdale during the 1610s. The raw material for this were bars of wrought iron. During the 17th century it was realised that the best steel came from oregrounds iron from a region of Sweden, north of Stockholm. This was still the usual raw material in the 19th century, almost as long as the process was used. Crucible steel is steel that has been melted in a crucible rather than being forged, with the result that it is more homogeneous. Most previous furnaces could not reach high enough temperatures to melt the steel. The early modern crucible steel industry resulted from the invention of Benjamin Huntsman in the 1740s. Blister steel (made as above) was melted in a crucible or in a furnace, and cast (usually) into ingots. Processes starting from pig iron A Siemens-Martin steel oven from the Brandenburg Museum of Industry White-hot steel pouring out of an electric arc furnace The modern era in steelmaking began with the introduction of Henry Bessemer's Bessemer process in 1858. His raw material was pig iron. This enabled steel to be produced in large quantities cheaply, so that mild steel is now used for most purposes for which wrought iron was formerly used. The Gilchrist-Thomas process (or basic Bessemer process) was an improvement to the Bessemer process, because it lined the converter with a basic material to remove phosphorus.

Another improvement in steelmaking was the Siemens-Martin process, which complemented the Bessemer process. These were rendered obsolete by the Linz-Donawitz process of basic oxygen steelmaking, developed in the 1950s, and other oxygen steelmaking processes. Basic oxygen steelmaking is superior to previous steelmaking methods because the oxygen pumped into the furnace limits impurities. Now, electric arc furnaces are a common method of reprocessing scrap metal to create new steel. They can also be used for converting pig iron to steel, but they use a great deal of electricity (about 440 kWh per metric ton), and are thus generally only economical when there is a plentiful supply of cheap electricity. Steel industry A Corus Group plant in the United Kingdom Steel production by country in 2007 See also: History of the modern steel industry, Global steel industry trends, Steel production by country, and List of steel producers It is common today to talk about "the iron and steel industry" as if it were a single entity, but historically they were separate products. The steel industry is often considered to be an indicator of economic progress, because of the critical role played by steel in infrastructural and overall economic development. The economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in the demand for steel in recent years. Between 2000 and 2005, world steel demand increased by 6%. Since 2000, several Indian and Chinese steel firms have risen to prominence like Tata Steel (which bought Corus Group in 2007), Shanghai Baosteel Group Corporation and Shagang Group. ArcelorMittal is however the world's largest steel producer. In 2005, the British Geological Survey stated China was the top steel producer with about one-third of the world share; Japan, Russia, and the US followed respectively. In 2008, steel started to be traded as a commodity in the London Metal Exchange. At the end of 2008, the steel industry faced a sharp downturn that led to many cut-backs. Recycling A pile of steel scrap in Brussels, waiting to be recycled Steel is one of the most recycled materials in the world, and, as of 2007, more than 78% of steel was recycled in the United States. In the United States it is the most widely recycled material; in 2000, more than 60 million metric tons were recycled. The most commonly recycled items are containers, automobiles, appliances, and construction materials. For example, in 2007, more than 97% of structural steel and 110% of automobiles were recycled, comparing the current steel consumption for each industry with the amount of recycled steel being produced.

A typical appliance is about 75% steel by weight and automobiles are about 65% steel and iron. The steel industry has been actively recycling for more than 150 years, in large part because it is economically advantageous to do so. It is cheaper to recycle steel than to mine iron ore and manipulate it through the production process to form new steel. Steel does not lose any of its inherent physical properties during the recycling process, and has drastically reduced energy and material requirements compared with refinement from iron ore. The energy saved by recycling reduces the annual energy consumption of the industry by about 75%, which is enough to power eighteen million homes for one year. Steel from the World Trade Center is poured for construction of USS New York (LPD-21) The BOS steelmaking uses between 25 and 35% recycled steel to make new steel. BOS steel usually has less residual elements in it, such as copper, nickel and molybdenum and is therefore more malleable than EAF steel so it is often used to make automotive fenders, soup cans, industrial drums or any product with a large degree of cold working. EAF steelmaking uses almost 100% recycled steel. This steel contains more residual elements that cannot be removed through the application of oxygen and lime so it is used to make structural beams, plates, reinforcing bar and other products that require little cold working. Recycling one ton of steel saves 1,100 kilograms of iron ore, 630 kilograms of coal, and 55 kilograms of limestone. Because steel beams are manufactured to standardized dimensions, there is often very little waste produced during construction, and any waste that is produced may be recycled. For a typical 2,000-square-foot (200 m2) two-story house, a steel frame is equivalent to about six recycled cars, while a comparable wooden frame house may require as many as 4050 trees. v  d  e Recycling by material aluminum   batteries   computers   concrete   glass   paper   plastic   rubber   steel   textiles   timber Contemporary steel See also: Steel grades Modern steels are made with varying combinations of alloy metals to fulfill many purposes. Carbon steel, composed simply of iron and carbon, accounts for 90% of steel production. High strength low alloy steel has small additions (usually < 2% by weight) of other elements, typically 1.5% manganese, to provide additional strength for a modest price increase. Low alloy steel is alloyed with other elements, usually molybdenum, manganese, chromium, or nickel, in amounts of up to 10% by weight to improve the hardenability of thick sections. Stainless steels and surgical stainless steels contain a minimum of 11% chromium, often combined with nickel, to resist corrosion (rust). Some stainless steels are magnetic, while others are nonmagnetic. Some more modern steels include tool steels, which are alloyed with large amounts of tungsten and cobalt or other elements to maximize solution hardening. This also allows the use of precipitation hardening and improves the alloy's temperature resistance. Tool steel is generally used in axes, drills, and other devices that need a sharp, long-lasting cutting edge. Other special-purpose alloys include weathering steels such as Cor-ten, which weather by acquiring a stable, rusted surface, and so can be used un-painted. Many other high-strength alloys exist, such as dual-phase steel, which is heat treated to contain both a ferritic and martensitic microstructure for extra strength. Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) steel involves special alloying and heat treatments to stabilize amounts of austentite at room temperature in normally austentite-free low-alloy ferritic steels. By applying strain to the metal, the austentite undergoes a phase transition to martensite without the addition of heat. Maraging steel is alloyed with nickel and other elements, but unlike most steel contains almost no carbon at all. This creates a very strong but still malleable metal.

Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) steel uses a specific type of strain to increase the effectiveness of work hardening on the alloy. Eglin Steel uses a combination of over a dozen different elements in varying amounts to create a relatively low-cost metal for use in bunker buster weapons. Hadfield steel (after Sir Robert Hadfield) or manganese steel contains 1214% manganese which when abraded forms an incredibly hard skin which resists wearing. Examples include tank tracks, bulldozer blade edges and cutting blades on the jaws of life. Most of the more commonly used steel alloys are categorized into various grades by standards organizations. For example, the Society of Automotive Engineers has a series of grades defining many types of steel. The American Society for Testing and Materials has a separate set of standards, which define alloys such as A36 steel, the most commonly used structural steel in the United States. Though not an alloy, galvanized steel is a commonly used variety of steel which has been hot-dipped or electroplated in zinc for protection against rust. Uses A roll of steel wool Iron and steel are used widely in the construction of roads, railways, infrastructure, and buildings. Most large modern structures, such as stadiums and skyscrapers, bridges, and airports, are supported by a steel skeleton. Even those with a concrete structure will employ steel for reinforcing. In addition to widespread use in major appliances and cars. Despite growth in usage of aluminium, it is still the main material for car bodies. Steel is used in a variety of other construction materials, such as bolts, nails, and screws. Other common applications include shipbuilding, pipeline transport, mining, offshore construction, aerospace, white goods (e.g. washing machines), heavy equipment such as bulldozers, office furniture, steel wool, tools, and armour in the form of personal vests or vehicle armour (better known as rolled homogeneous armour in this role). Historical A carbon steel knife Before the introduction of the Bessemer process and other modern production techniques, steel was expensive and was only used where no cheaper alternative existed, particularly for the cutting edge of knives, razors, swords, and other items where a hard, sharp edge was needed. It was also used for springs, including those used in clocks and watches. With the advent of speedier and thriftier production methods, steel has been easier to obtain and much cheaper. It has replaced wrought iron for a multitude of purposes. However, the availability of plastics in the latter part of the 20th century allowed these materials to replace steel due to their lower cost and weight. Long steel A steel pylon suspending overhead powerlines As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete Railroad tracks Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges Wires Flat carbon steel Major appliances Magnetic cores The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships. Stainless steel A stainless steel gravy boat Main article: Stainless steel Cutlery Rulers Surgical equipment Wrist watches See also CALPHAD Cold rolling Global steel industry trends Hot rolling Iron in folklore List of steel producers Machinability Maraging steel Pelletizing Rolling Rolling mill Rust Belt SAE steel grades Silicon steel Steel mill Steel abrasive Tamahagane, used in Samurai swords. Tinplate References ^ a b c d e Ashby, Michael F.; David R. H. Jones (1992) . Engineering Materials 2 (with corrections ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-032532-7.  ^ Winter, Mark. "Periodic Table: Iron". The University of Sheffield. http://www.webelements.com/iron/. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ F. Brookins, Theo (November 1899). "Common Minerals and Valuable Ores". Birds and All Nature (A. W. Mumford) 6 (4). http://birdnature.com/nov1899/ores.html. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Smelting". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ a b "Alloying of Steels". Metallurgical Consultants. 2006-06-28. http://materialsengineer.com/E-Alloying-Steels.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ Elert, Glenn. "Density of Steel". http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2004/KarenSutherland.shtml. Retrieved 2009-04-23.  ^ Sources differ on this value so it has been rounded to 2.1%, however the exact value is rather academic as plain-carbon steel is very rare made with this level of carbon. See: Smith & Hashemi 2006, p. 3632.08%. Degarmo, Black & Kohser 2003, p. 75.2.11%. Ashby & Jones 19922.14%. ^ Smith & Hashemi 2006, p. 363. ^ Smith & Hashemi 2006, p. 365372. ^ a b Smith & Hashemi 2006, pp. 373378. ^ "Quench hardening of steel". http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=12. Retrieved 2009-07-19.  ^ Smith & Hashemi 2006, p. 249. ^ Smith & Hashemi 2006, p. 388. ^ Smith & Hashemi 2006, pp. 361362. ^ Bugayev et al. Savin, p. 225 ^ Wagner, Donald B.. "Early iron in China, Korea, and Japan". http://www.staff.hum.ku.dk/dbwagner/KoreanFe/KoreanFe.html. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ Beckmann, Johann (1846). A history of inventions, discoveries and origins. 2. H.G. Bohn. p. 324325. http://books.google.com/books?id=qGMSAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA324&dq=origins+of+steel#v=onepage&q=&f=false. "To the north of Judaea was situated Chalybia, the ancient country of steel."  ^ "Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel". http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/001200903261611.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-27.  ^ "Civilizations in Africa: The Iron Age South of the Sahara". Washington State University. http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/CIVAFRCA/IRONAGE.HTM. Retrieved 2007-08-14.  ^ "Noricus ensis," Horace, Odes, i. 16.9 ^ Wagner, Donald B. (1993). Iron and Steel in Ancient China: Second Impression, With Corrections. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 243. ISBN 9004096329.  ^ Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.. p. 563.  ^ Gernet, 69. ^ Wilford, John Noble (1996-02-06). "Ancient Smelter Used Wind To Make High-Grade Steel". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1996/02/06/science/ancient-smelter-used-wind-to-make-high-grade-steel.html?n=Top/News/Science/Topics/Archaeology and Anthropology.  ^ a b Ann Feuerbach, 'An investigation of the varied technology found in swords, sabres and blades from the Russian Northern Caucasus' IAMS 25 for 2005, 27-43 at 29, apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, 282. ^ a b G. Juleff (1996). "An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka". Nature 379 (3): 6063. doi:10.1038/379060a0.  ^ Sanderson, Katharine (2006-11-15). "Sharpest cut from nanotube sword". News nature (Nature). doi:10.1038/news061113-11.  ^ Wayman, M L and Juleff, G (1999). "Crucible Steelmaking in Sri Lanka". Historical Metallurgy 33 (1): 26.  ^ Robert Hartwell (966). "Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry". Journal of Economic History 26: 5354.  ^ a b R. F. Tylecote, A history of metallurgy 2 edn, Institute of Materials, London 1992, 95-99 and 102-105. ^ A. Raistrick, A Dynasty of Ironfounders (1953; York 1989) ^ C. K. Hyde, Technological Change and the British iron industry (Princeton 1977) ^ B. Trinder, The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire (Chichester 2000) ^ K. C. Barraclough, Steel before Bessemer: I Blister Steel: the birth of an industry (The Metals Society, London, 1984), 48-52. ^ P. W. King (2003). "The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron: trading in the raw material for steel during the eighteenth century". Journal of Industrial History 6 (1): 2549.  ^ a b c d "Iron and steel industry". Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ K. C. Barraclough, Steel before Bessemer: II Crucible Steel: the growth of technology (The Metals Society, London, 1984). ^ James Moore Swank (1892). History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages. ISBN 0833734636.  ^ "Bessemer process". Britannica. 2. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2005. pp. 168.  ^ "Basic oxygen process". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ J.A.T. Jones, B. Bowman, P.A. Lefrank, Electric Furnace Steelmaking, in The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, 525660. R.J. Fruehan, Editor. 1998, The AISE Steel Foundation: Pittsburgh. ^ "Steel Industry". http://bx.businessweek.com/steel-industry/. Retrieved 2009-07-12.  ^ "India's steel industry steps onto world stage". http://csmonitor.com/2007/0212/p07s02-wosc.html. Retrieved 2009-07-12.  ^ "Long-term planning needed to meet steel demand". The News. 2008-03-01. http://www.thenews.com.pk/daily_detail.asp?id=98951.  ^ Uchitelle, Louis (2009-01-01). "Steel Industry, in Slump, Looks to Federal Stimulus". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/02/business/02steel.html?_r=1&partner=permalink&exprod=permalink. Retrieved 2009-07-19.  ^ a b Hartman, Roy A. (2009). "Recycling". Encarta. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556346/Recycling.html.  ^ a b "Steel Recycling Rates at a Glance". http://www.recycle-steel.org/rates.html. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "2005 Minerals Handbook" (PDF). February 2007. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/recycle/recycmyb05.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-15.  ^ "Recycling steel appliances". http://recycle-steel.org/appliances.html. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "Steel: Driving auto recycling success". http://recycle-steel.org/cars.html. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "Facts About Steel Recycling". http://earth911.com/metal/steel/facts-about-steel-recycling/. Retrieved 2009-07-18.  ^ "Steel". http://www.epa.gov/waste/conserve/materials/steel.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "Information on Recycling Steel Products". WasteCap of Massachusetts. Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20071011205459/http://wastecap.org/wastecap/commodities/steel/steel.htm#Benefitssteel. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Steel: the clear cut alternative for building homes". http://recycle-steel.org/PDFs/brochures/residenfram.pdf. Retrieved 2009-07-13.  ^ "High strength low alloy steels". Schoolscience.co.uk. http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/Corus/16plus/steelch3pg1.html. Retrieved 2007-08-14.  ^ "Steel Glossary". American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI). http://steel.org. Retrieved 2006-07-30.  ^ "Steel Interchange". American Institute of Steel Construction Inc. (AISC). Archived from the original on 2007-12-22. http://web.archive.org/web/20071222180444/http://aisc.org/MSCTemplate.cfm?Section=Steel_Interchange2&Template=/CustomSource/Faq/SteelInterchange.cfm&FaqID=2311. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Dual-phase steel". Intota Expert Knowledge Services. http://www.intota.com/experts.asp?strSearchType=all&strQuery=dual-phase+steel. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  ^ Werner, Prof. Dr. mont. Ewald. "Transformation Induced Plasticity in low alloyed TRIP-steels and microstructure response to a complex stress history". http://www.wkm.mw.tum.de/Forschung/projekte_html/transtrip.html. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  ^ "Properties of Maraging Steels". http://steel.keytometals.com/default.aspx?ID=CheckArticle&NM=103. Retrieved 2009-07-19.  ^ Mirko, Centi; Saliceti Stefano. "Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP), Twinning Induced Plasticity (TWIP) and Dual-Phase (DP) Steels". Tampere University of Technology. Archived from the original on 2008-03-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20080307200557/http://www.dimet.unige.it/resta/studenti/2002/27839/26/TWIP,TRIPandDualphase+mirko.doc. Retrieved 2007-03-01.  ^ Hadfield manganese steel. Answers.com. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2003. Retrieved on 2007-02-28. ^ Bringas, John E. (2004) (PDF). Handbook of Comparative World Steel Standards: Third Edition (3rd. ed.). ASTM International. p. 14. ISBN 0-8031-3362-6. http://astm.org/BOOKSTORE/PUBS/DS67B_SampleChapter.pdf.  ^ Steel Construction Manual, 8th Edition, second revised edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, 1986, ch. 1 page 1-5 ^ "Galvanic protection". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  ^ Ochshorn, Jonathan (2002-06-11). "Steel in 20th Century Architecture". Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century Architecture. http://people.cornell.edu/pages/jo24/comments/steel.html. Retrieved 2007-02-28.  ^ "Materials science". Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2007.  Bibliography Ashby, Michael F.; Jones, David Rayner Hunkin (1992), An introduction to microstructures, processing and design, Butterworth-Heinemann.  Bugayev, K.; Konovalov, Y.; Bychkov, Y.; Tretyakov, E.; Savin, Ivan V. (2001). Iron and Steel Production. The Minerva Group, Inc.. ISBN 9780894991097. http://books.google.com/books?id=MJdIVtmwuUsC. Retrieved 2009-07-19. . Degarmo, E. Paul; Black, J T.; Kohser, Ronald A. (2003), Materials and Processes in Manufacturing (9th ed.), Wiley, ISBN 0-471-65653-4.  Gernet, Jacques (1982). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smith, William F.; Hashemi, Javad (2006), Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering (4th ed.), McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-295358-6.  Further reading Duncan Burn; The Economic History of Steelmaking, 18671939: A Study in Competition. Cambridge University Press, 1961. Harukiyu Hasegawa, The Steel Industry in Japan: A Comparison with Britain. 1996. J. C. Carr and W. Taplin, History of the British Steel Industry. Harvard University Press, 1962. H. Lee Scamehorn, Mill & Mine: The Cf&I in the Twentieth Century. University of Nebraska Press, 1992. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 1 & Part 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Warren, Kenneth, Big Steel: The First Century of the United States Steel Corporation, 19012001. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2001. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Steel Look up steel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. World Steel Association (worldsteel) steeluniversity.org: Online steel education resources from worldsteel and the University of Liverpool Extensive picture gallery of iron and steel production methods in North America and Europe Interactive knife steel composition chart and comparison graph builder Huge archive on steels, Cambridge University Categories: Building materials | Recyclable materials | Steel | SteelmakingHidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from January 2010

 

[removed]// <![CDATA[var open_hack={};
open_hack.old=window.open;
open_hack.new_open=function(url){
return open_hack.old.apply(window,[url,'_blank']);
}
window.open=open_hack.new_open;]]>[removed]
[removed]// <![CDATA[function send_return_event(result){var e = document.createEvent('Events'); e.initEvent('adjs', true, true);var ele=document.getElementById('_ed_result') ; ele.setAttribute('result',result);ele.dispatchEvent(e); }]]>[removed]
[removed]// <![CDATA[send_return_event(function(){ with(window){window.get_select_html=function () { var rng = null, html = ""; if (window.document.selection && window.document.selection.createRange) { rng = window.document.selection.createRange(); html = rng.htmlText; return html; } else if (window.getSelection) { rng = window.getSelection(); if (rng.rangeCount > 0 && window.XMLSerializer) { rng = rng.getRangeAt(0); html = (new XMLSerializer).serializeToString(rng.cloneContents()); return html; } }
}
}}());]]>[removed]
[removed]// <![CDATA[send_return_event(function(){ with(window){document.addEventListener("mouseup", function(e){var ele=document.getElementById("_ed_init");var sel=window.getSelection();if(sel && sel.toString()){ ele.setAttribute("sel_html",get_select_html() );ele.setAttribute("sel_text", sel.toString() ); var e = document.createEvent("Events"); e.initEvent( "get_select_html", true, true); ele.dispatchEvent(e);}},1)
}}());]]>[removed]
About the Author

I am an expert from chinaslurrypump.com, while we provides the quality product, such as Vertical slurry pump EVR-100R , Slurry Pump EHM manufacturer, slurry pump,and more.

KD Tools 4 Piece SAE Combination Gear Wrench Set. Each $41.5 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. Features Benefits: Sizes: 3/8" - 9/16" Customers also search for: Discount 4 Piece SAE Combination Gear Wrench Set, Buy 4 Piece SAE Combination Gear Wrench Set, Wholesale 4 Piece SAE Combination Gear Wrench Set, 082171093

Alltrade Tools 835221 10 Pc SAE Combination Wrench Set $32.62 10 Pc SAE Combination Wrench Set Includes: 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 7/8 15/16 . Dropforged carbon steel construction. Made of Steel. Top quality item. Functionality that is unbeatable. Satisfaction ensured. Made from the finest materials. Offers excellent value.

KD Tools KDT81901 15 Piece SAE Combination Wrench Set $175.49 Features and Benefits. Long pattern length for greater leverage strength and access. Features Surface Drive Plustrade; which provides stronger grip on fasteners and reduces fastener rounding. Surface Drive Plustrade; also delivers up to 25 more torque. Offset box end. Size stamped on both sides and on head for greater visibility to wrench size15 Piece SAE Long Pattern Combination NonRatcheting Wrench Set includes: 1/4 thru 1 Wrenches.nbsp; Packaged in a blow mold tray.

Trademark Tools Ratchet Combination Wrenches Sae Set Of 7 $54.04 You ll be able to tackle a wide range of jobs around the house with these great Ratchet Combination Wrenches from Trademark Tools. With seven different size options you ll have the right wrench for each task. Durable chrome vanadium steel makes this wrench set durable and the ratcheting action makes them a valuable addition to any handy man s tool setFeatures include:. Chrome Vanadium Steel. Ratcheting Box End. Standard Open End. Wrench Sizes: 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 3/4 inches. Carrying Case. Includes Retail Packaging

S K Hand Tools 11 Piece SuperKrome SAE Short Combination Wrench Set. 1 Set $203.99 Manufacturer: S K Hand Tools. 1 Set. Contains: 3/8", 7/16", 1/2", 9/16", 5/8", 11/16", 3/4", 13/16", 7/8", 15/16", 1" wrenches. Packaged in a tray. Customers also search for: Discount 11 Piece SuperKrome&reg SAE Short Combination Wrench Set, Buy 11 Piece

KD Tools 7 Piece SAE Combination Gear Wrench Set. Each $53.91 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. Features Benefits: Provides the speed and performance advantage over the traditional wrench, providing fast ratcheting action. Sizes: 5/16 in., 3/8 in., 7/16 in., 1/2 in., 9/16 in., 5/8 in. and 3/4 in. Customers also sear

KD Tools 15 Piece SAE Combination Wrench Set. Each $117.08 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. Features Benefits Long pattern length for greater leverage, strength and access Features Surface Drive Plus which provides stronger grip on fasteners and reduces fastener rounding Surface Drive Plus also delivers up to 25%

K-D Tools 8 Pc. Indexing Combination Wrench Set (SAE) $138.95 Locking pivot point on ratcheting end 13 locking position allow access to hard to get at places When pivot end is unlocked it allows the wrench to be ?pumped? in a piston motion for increased ratcheting speed Ratcheting end needs as little as 5 degrees to move fasteners Lifetime warranty   Set Includes: 5/16" 3/8" 7/16" 1/2" 9/16" 5/8" 11/16" 3/4"

KD Tools KDT85898 9 Piece SAE XBeam Ratcheting Combination Wrench Set $154.39 Features and Benefits . Unique XBeamtrade; design allows you to apply force to the flat of the wrench which reduces hand fatigue and increases surface contact by over 500.. Up to 25 longer beam to access those hard to reach fasteners. Surface Drive Plustrade; provides stronger grip on fasteners and delivers up to 25 more torque. Surface Drive on ratcheting box end improves box end strength and reduces fastener rounding. First tool recognized by the Arthritis Institute to significantly reduce the risk of carpal tunnel 9 Piece SAE XBeam Ratcheting Combination Wrench Set. Includes: 5/16 11/32 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 and 3/4 .

S K Hand Tools 20 Piece SuperKrome SAE/Metric Short Combination Wrench SuperSet. Each $305.24 Manufacturer: S K Hand Tools. Each. 86250 Short Combination Wrenches Short pattern design enables greater access in confined spaces The patented SureGrip hex design drives the side of the fastener, not the corner High Polish SuperKrome plating results in

S K Hand Tools 15 Piece SuperKrome 12 Point SAE Combination Wrench Set. 1 Set $177.63 Manufacturer: S K Hand Tools. 1 Set. Features Benefits: Fractional standard length combo wrench set includes 12 point sizes - 1/4", 9/32", 5/16", 11/32", 3/8", 7/16", 1/2", 9/16", 5/8", 11/16", 3/4", 13/16", 7/8", 15/16", 1" (new: 9/32" and 11/32" 12 p

S K Hand Tools 7 Piece SuperKrome SAE Short Combination Wrench Set. 1 Set $89.67 Manufacturer: S K Hand Tools. 1 Set. Short Pattern design enables greater access in confined spaces The patented SureGrip hex design drives the side of the fastener, not the corner High Polish SuperKrome plating results in a jewelry-like finish, providing

KD Tools 21 Piece Gear Ratchet Combination SAE & Metric Socket Set. Each $46.92 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. Features Benefits: Fine tooth 5º ratchet handle "Pass through" socket system eliminates the need for deep sockets The GearRatchet handle quickly converts to a conventional 1/4" or 3/8" ratchet for standard sockets by using

KD Tools 9 Piece X-Beam SAE Flex Combination Ratcheting Wrench Set. Each $117.43 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. Features and Benefits 525% increase in surface contact area provides more power with less stress Flexible head design for ultimate versatility Up to 25% longer than standard wrenches to access those hard to reach fasteners S

KD Tools 9 Piece X-Beam Reversible SAE Combination Ratcheting Wrench Set. Each $109.42 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. Features and Benefits: Up to 525% increase in surface contact area vs. a standard handle wrench Works with the wrenches' wider side for more power with less stress Compact reversing lever adds productivity and directional ch

KD Tools 10 Piece SAE/Metric Combination Gear Wrench Set. Each $119 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. Features Benefits: Surface drive nearly eliminates fastener rounding Sleek head design enables access to tight spots where a ratchet will not fit Ratcheting box end needs as little as 5 degrees to move a fastener Set inclu

KD Tools 24 Piece SAE/Metric Long Pattern Combination Non Ratcheting Wrench Set. Each $160.44 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. Features Benefits Long pattern length - greater leverage, strength, and access provides stronger grip on fasteners Surface Drive Plus Reduces fastener rounding - Delivers up to 25% more torque Size stamped on both sides an

KD Tools 9 Piece SAE XL X-Beam Combination Non-Ratcheting Wrench Set. Each $98.75 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. Features and Benefits: Surface Drive Plus provides stronger grip on fasteners Reduces fastener rounding Delivers up to 25% more torque Non-ratcheting offset box end Size stamped on both sides and head for easy identification

KD Tools KDT8921 21 PIece GearRatchet Combination SAE and Metric Socket Set $66.67 Features amp; Benefits: . Fine tooth 5ordm; ratchet handle. Pass through socket system eliminates the need for deep sockets. The GearRatchet handle quickly converts to a conventional 1/4 or 3/8 ratchet for standard sockets by using the two included adapters Set Includes: . Gear ratchet handle. (7) SAE Vortex sockets (3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 and 3/4 ). (10) Metric Vortex sockets (10mm 11mm 12mm 13mm 14mm 15mm 16mm 17mm 18mm and 19mm). 1/4 dr. GearRatchet adapter. 3/8 dr. GearRatchet adapter. Vortex Passthru 3 extension (Designed to reach into deep recesses making deep sockets obsolete). The Vortex thin wall socket design has the same torque strength as an ordinary socket. Over all height is reduced by as much as 50 width by 20. The unique gear ratchet drive configuration increases torque strength by as much as 40 and needs as little as 5ordm; or arc. Chrome vanadium steel. Fully hardened

Stanley 85-927 6 Piece SAE Combination Wrench Set $16.99 1/4-in SAE Wrench. 3/8-in SAE Wrench. 7/16-in SAE Wrench. 1/2-in SAE Wrench. 9/16-in SAE Wrench. 5/8-in SAE Wrench

S K Hand Tools SKT86250 SuperKrome SAE and Metric Short Combination Wrench Super Set 20 Pieces $406.09 Short pattern design enables greater access in confined spaces. The patented SureGrip hex design drives the side of the fastener not the corner. High Polish SuperKrome plating results in a jewelrylike finish providing long life and maximum

S K Hand Tools SKT86237 SuperKrome SAE Short Combination Wrench Set 7 Pieces $129.43 Short pattern design enables greater access in confined spaces. The patented SureGrip hex design drives the side of the fastener not the corner. High Polish SuperKrome plating results in a jewelrylike finish providing long life and maximum

KD Tools KDT81917 SAE Long Pattern Combination NonRatcheting Wrench Set 18 Pieces $186.01 Long pattern length for greater access. Surface Drive Plus technology provides stronger grip on fasteners reduces fastener rounding and delivers up to 25 more torque. Size stamped on both sides and head. Offset box end. Chrome vanadi

KD Hand Tools 9701 8 Piece Flex Head Combination Ratcheting Wrench Set SAE $159.07 The Flex Head tilts 180 degrees at any interval with continuous head tension so you can reach the tightest places. Flex head is built with spring washers that will keep the head tight even after years of use. The patented GearWrench Ratcheting Wrench needs as little as 5 degrees of movement to turn a fastener. SurfaceDrive box end virtually eliminates the rounding of fasteners. Lifetime Manufacturer s Warranty Contains: 5/16 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4

Apex Tool Group Tools Ratcheting Combination Wrench Reversible SAE 4 Piece Set $58.42 Reverses with the push of a button even in the tightest spaces. The reversing feature allows the box end to have a 15deg; offset just like standard box end wrenches so you can grip the wrench easier and apply more power without risking skinned knuckles. Mirror finished chrome vanadium steel construction for maximum strength durability and corrosion resistance. 4 piece set includes .38 7/16 .50 and 9/16 standard size wrenches. Includes a heavy duty plastic storage tray designed to fit permanently in a tool drawer or tool box. Trays are made of durable heavy duty textured plastic and have custom fit cutouts that keep the wrenches organized and close at hand. Carded. Length: 6. Width: 1. Height: 13

S K Hand Tools SKT86255 SuperKrome 12 Point SAE Combination Wrench Set 15 Pieces $236.91 Fractional standard length combo wrench set includes 12 point sizes 1/4 9/32 5/16 11/32 3/8 7/16 1/2 9/16 5/8 11/16 3/4 13/16 7/8 15/16 1 (new: 9/32 and 11/32 12 pt. Wrenches). Dimensions: 12 W x 13 L x 1 H.

S K Hand Tools SKT86231 SuperKrome SAE Short Combination Wrench Set 11 Pieces $274.04 Box ends are countersunk to help lead the wrench over fastener heads. Heads are angled 15deg; for greater access. Open ends also feature a smooth arc radius design for improved strength and durability. Handle edges are rounded for improve

Buffalo Tools PS07557 Pro Series 22Pc Combination Wrench Set $30.03 Pro Series 22 Piece Combination Wrench Set The Pro Series 22 Piece Combination Wrench Set contains all the most common SAE and metric wrench sizes you will need for tightening and loosening nuts and bolts. The 22 included wrenches are dual sided (one box end one open end) so these wrenches will fit any type of nut or bolt in even hard to reach places. It is the ideal wrench set to have on hand for DIY and home improvement projects. The storage case keeps tools organized in a compact size ideal for keeping in cars trailers for emergency repairs. For DIY Projects Home Improvement Storage Case Keep Tools organized SAE Metric For All Nuts Bolts Compact Size For Cars Trailers Dual Sided BoxEnd And OpenEnd Wrenches SAE: 1/4inch 5/16inch 11/32 inch 3/8inch 7/16inch 1/2inch 9/16inch 19/32 inch 5/8inch 11/16inch 3/4inch METRIC: 6mm 7mm 8mm 9mm 10mm 11mm 12mm 13mm 14mm 15mm and 17mm

Pony® - Combination Wrench Sets $69.9 Superior quality hand tools. Pony® combination wrench sets are in open-type boxes Includes vinyl pouches Made of forged alloy steel Nickel chrome plate finished Consists of SAE measuring system Come in 14 pieces per set or standard pack

Prima Tools / 7 PC SAE NUT DRIVER SET - / 35300DRINS07S $20.12 Prima Tools - 7 PC SAE NUT DRIVER SET - - 35300DRINS07S

Cooper Hand Tools Crescent® - Reversible Ratcheting Combination Wrench Sets $103.6 Durable reversible ratcheting wrench sets. Cooper Hand Tools Crescent® - 7 PC REVERSIBLE RATCH.COMB WRENCH SET Tools in set comes with patented "Rapid Reverse" system System allows for faster job completion Reversing direction easily done with the push of a button Ideal for use in confined areas Patented ratchet system allows for turning bolts with just 5° handle swing vs. 30° Open-end jaw surfaces are parallel to within plus-minus .0015in Closed end of tool great for use in spaces deep sockets cannot get to Special heat-treatment process on 72-tooth ratcheting mechanism for durability Standard combination wrench ANSI torque load requirements met Metric or SAE measuring system Comes in a blow molded case

KD Tools 18 Piece Lp Combination Wrench Set Non-ratcheting. Each $141.5 Manufacturer: KD Tools. Each. 18 Piece SAE Long Pattern Combination Non-Ratcheting Wrench Set Features and Benefits: Long pattern length for greater access Surface Drive Plus technology provides stronger grip on fasteners, reduces fastener rounding and

K-D Tools 16 Piece GearDriver Combination Nut Driver Set $67.96 Latest innovation utilizing GearForce Technology brings a new standard in ratcheting drive tools. Fine tooth ratcheting mechanism for proven strength and fine ratcheting arc. Interchangeable Nut Driver Shafts covering a variety of SAE and Metric applications. Contoured handle features a dual durometer grip for exceptional comfort and high torque. Packaged in a case. Includes: 1 - Stubby GearDriver Handle. 7 - Interchangeable Fractional Nut Driver Shafts: 3/16 inch, 1/4 inch, 5/16 inch, 11/32 inch, 3/8 inch, 7/16 inch, and 1/2 inch. 8 - Interchangeable Metric Nut Driver Shafts: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12mm.

Sunex Tools 9604 4Pc Sae Jumbo 21/8 To 21/2 $224.45 4 Piece. Sae Jumbo 21/8 x 21/2 .

K Tool International 13 Piece SAE Combination Wrench Set. Each $62.68 Manufacturer: K Tool International. Each. T Combination Wrench Set Raised panel high polish chrome plated. Heat treated. All pieces available individually. With Heavy duty bag. Customers also search for: Discount 13 Piece SAE Combination Wrench Set, Buy 1

10 Piece SAE T-handle Hex Key Set by Wilmar Tools $13.99 Heat treated alloy steel shafts;Plastic grips add comfort and turning power;Bonus storage tray mounts on wall or bench 10 Piece SAE T-handle Hex Key Set by Wilmar Tools

7 Piece SAE Ratching Wrench by Wilmar Tools for Jeep $57.99 72 teeth ratching gear;Slim style;12-point box end;Needs as little as 5 Deg. to turn;Quality chrome vanadium steel construction 7 Piece SAE Ratching Wrench by Wilmar Tools for Jeep

V8 Tools Inc VT9017 17 Piece SAE Standard Length Combo Wrench Set $59.54 Standard length combination wrenches are most commonly used in auto shops. Drop forged fully polished in canvas pouch. 1/4 to 11/4 including the newly popular 13/16 . Huge selection to choose from. Using only the highest quality materials. Providing you with great selection and quality. Satisfaction ensured.